Mango farming is a rewarding agricultural practice, especially in tropical and subtropical regions where mangoes thrive. Known as the “King of Fruits,” mangoes require a warm climate, well-drained soil, and proper care throughout their growth cycle. Successful mango farming involves stages like planting, irrigation, pruning, and pest management. Post-harvest handling is crucial to ensure fruit quality, involving processes like grading, cooling, and packing. With rising global demand, mango farming offers significant economic potential for farmers worldwide.
Mango serves as a major food source for many tropical inhabitants after bananas. It is a rich source of prebiotic dietary fiber and provides essential vitamins, including A, C, E, and B6. Additionally, mangoes contain vital minerals like magnesium, iron, and copper. They are also abundant in flavonoids such as beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin. Even the peel offers valuable phytonutrients, including antioxidant pigments like carotenoids and polyphenols.
Classification
Kingdom : Plantae (Plants)
Subkingdom : Tracheobionta (Vascular plants)
Superdivision : Spermatophyta (Seed plants)
Division : Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class : Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons)
Subclass : Rosidae
Order : Sapindales
Family : Anacardiaceae
Genus : Mangifera
Species : indica
Origin
Native to southern Asia, mangoes originate primarily from Eastern India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands. The center of origin is considered to be Northeast India and the Andaman Islands, where mango cultivation has deep historical roots.
Distribution
- Introduced to Eastern Asia in the 4th and 5th centuries.
- Brought to East Africa by Persians around the 10th century.
- Reached the East Indies before the 16th century.
- Introduced to the West Indies around 1742.
- Arrived in Jamaica around 1782.
- Reached Mexico from the Philippines and West Indies in the early 19th century.
Climatic requirement
The optimal production areas for mango cultivation are below 800 meters in elevation, though the fruit can also be grown at altitudes up to 1200 meters. Mangoes thrive in soil with a pH range of 5.5 to 7 and require a soil depth of approximately 1 meter for healthy root development.
Rainfall
A well-distributed rainfall pattern is more crucial for mango cultivation than the total amount of rainfall. Mango trees are highly drought-tolerant and can endure occasional flooding. However, in tropical regions with heavy rainfall, yields tend to be lower due to excessive vegetative growth. During the flowering period, low rainfall is preferable, as high moisture levels can increase the risk of anthracnose infection in the flowers.
Temperature
Temperature plays a crucial role in mango flowering, with optimal growth and development occurring between 24°C and 30°C. Pollen viability decreases when temperatures exceed 35°C or fall below 15°C. During fruit development, mango trees can withstand temperatures up to 48°C, provided there is sufficient irrigation. While they can endure minimum temperatures of 1°C to 2°C, frost can severely damage or even kill young trees. Mature trees can tolerate brief exposure to temperatures as low as -4°C with limited damage.
Soil Requirement for Mango Farming
Mango trees thrive in a variety of soils, ranging from alluvial to laterite, as long as the soil is deep (at least 6 feet) and well-drained. They grow best in slightly acidic conditions, with an optimal pH range between 5.5 and 7.5.
Fertilizer Management
Follow the link: Mango Fertilizers
Irrigation
Frequent watering is essential for young banana plants to ensure proper establishment and healthy growth. For mature trees, providing irrigation at intervals of 10 to 15 days, especially from the stage of fruit set to maturity, significantly enhances yield and fruit quality. However, irrigation should be avoided for 2 to 3 months before the flowering stage, as excessive water during this period can stimulate vegetative growth, which may occur at the cost of flowering and fruit production.
Flower induction and flowering
The bud in mango is ecodormant, influenced either by cool temperatures or drought conditions during the preceding period of floral initiation. Additionally, defoliation of shoot tips can release bud dormancy, indicating that the bud also displays foliar paradormancy, where its activity is regulated by the presence of surrounding foliage.
Floral induction in mango requires a combination of factors for successful development. These include the presence of competitive shoots that are mature and ready for flowering, an internal hormonal stimulus that triggers the flowering process, and exposure to inductive temperatures, which create the optimal environmental conditions for initiating floral development.
Mango does not flower on newly developed shoots. Floral induction occurs only after the leaves on a shoot have fully expanded and turned dark green. Buds on shoots older than eight weeks are capable of initiating flowering. The process is governed by an unidentified floral stimulus, referred to as florigen, which originates in mature leaves.
Temperature plays a crucial role in mango flower induction, which typically occurs during the cooler winter months. Inductive temperatures are around 18°C during the day and 10°C at night, while flower initiation requires slightly warmer conditions of approximately 28°C during the day and 22°C at night. Warm temperatures, such as 30°C during the day and 25°C at night, favor vegetative growth instead of flowering. Sustained temperatures near 30°C can inhibit floral initiation in induced buds. Extremely low temperatures may cause flower deformation and pollen death.
Mango is generally day-neutral, with flowering occurring across various photoperiods if inductive temperatures are present. However, geographic factors influence flowering times. For every degree of latitude north or south, flowering is delayed by about four days. Similarly, for every 125-meter increase in elevation, flowering is also delayed by four days.
Phenological cycle of synchronous and asynchronous growth
Asynchronous growth
Asynchronous growth in mango is characterized by multiple vegetative flushes throughout the year, with different parts of the tree flushing at varying times. This results in an overlap between flowering and vegetative flushes, particularly in hot tropical regions. Among the various vegetative flushes, the growth occurring during June-July tends to be the most productive and contributes significantly to the tree’s overall development and yield potential.
Synchronus growth
Mango trees with synchronous growth exhibit a single annual cycle of flowering and vegetative flush, with no overlap between the two processes. The vegetative flush typically occurs during June to July, providing a clear distinction between the growth phases and ensuring a well-defined flowering period for optimal fruit development.
Growth occurs in vegetative flush of the terminal bud and contains 10-12 new leaves per flush.
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Botany
Tree
Mango trees are evergreen, with leaves remaining on the tree for 4 to 5 years. These trees are monoecious, possessing both male and female flowers. They typically feature a symmetrical, rounded canopy, although their growth habit can vary from low and dense to upright and open. Mango trees can reach impressive heights, ranging from 8 to 40 meters, depending on the variety and growing conditions.
Leaf
Mango leaves are simple and alternately arranged, with a pinnately reticulated venation pattern. They vary in size, measuring 15 to 45 cm in length, with petioles ranging from 1 to 12 cm. The leaf shape is variable, commonly oval to lanceolate, with an apex that can be acuminate or nearly rounded and margins that are typically entire. Young leaves display a striking copper-red or purplish hue, while mature leaves contain mangiferin, a xanthone compound.
Inflorescence
Mango trees produce large, heavily branched panicles, each bearing 300 to 3,000 flowers depending on the cultivar. These panicles consist of both perfect and staminate flowers, with the proportion of perfect flowers ranging from 1.25% to 81%, showing significant variation across varieties. Despite the abundance of flowers, the fruit set rate is typically less than 1%, highlighting the tree’s natural reproductive challenges.
Flower
Mango flowers are of two types: perfect hermaphrodite and male. Each flower typically has 4-5 calyx lobes and 4-5 pinkish-white petals, adorned with yellow ridges on the inner surface. At the center lies a circular nectary disc, divided into 4-5 segments, surrounding a one-celled ovary with an obliquely protruding stigma. Flowers usually have one functional stamen, while the remaining four are non-functional or abortive, referred to as staminodes. Male flowers resemble hermaphrodite flowers but lack an ovary.
Flowering, Pollination and Fruit Set
The full bloom stage in the crop occurs 25 to 30 days after panicle initiation. About 60% of the flowers open before 6 a.m., while the remaining flowers open during the day. Anther dehiscence takes place within one hour after anthesis. The stigma becomes receptive one day before anthesis and remains receptive for up to two days afterward.
The pollen is sticky, with 90% viability, but it tends to fall on the base of the ovary and the nectary disc rather than on the stigma. Cross pollination is essential, and the process is facilitated by insects such as bees, wasps, and flies. Self-pollination results in a low fruit set of 0–1.68%, whereas cross-pollination significantly increases the fruit set to 6.4–23.4%, with notable differences observed among cultivars.
Polyembryony
Polyembryony is a phenomenon where multiple genetically identical embryos develop from the nucellar tissue of the ovary, resulting in more than one embryo per seed. In such cases, the nucellar embryos often suppress the development of the zygotic embryo. Mango cultivars in some regions exhibit a high degree of polyembryony, which can influence the shape of the fruit. Monoembryonic fruits are generally rounder, whereas polyembryonic fruits tend to be more elongated. This trait varies significantly among cultivars.
Subtropical Indian cultivars, which typically produce rounder fruits, are predominantly monoembryonic. In contrast, Indochinese and Southeast Asian cultivars, known for their elongated fruits, are largely polyembryonic. The polyembryonic trait contributes to higher fruit set, as the nucellar embryos can assume the role of aborted zygotic embryos, enabling normal fruit development. On the other hand, zygote abortion in monoembryonic cultivars halts further fruit development, often resulting in fruit drop.
Seed less fruit
Seedlessness in fruit is not a common phenomenon but has been reported in a few mango varieties, including Harders, Tommy Atkins, and Momi-K. It occurs as a result of embryo abortion following the production of growth-promoting substances. In monoembryonic cultivars, a small number of embryo-aborted ovaries can still develop into commercially sized fruits. Parthenocarpic fruit formation, which occurs due to ovule abortion, may happen under specific conditions, such as a temperature of about 14°C.
Floral Induction and Fruit Set Control by Chemical
Biennial bearing and post-set fruit drop are significant challenges in mango cultivation. Warmer temperatures tend to suppress flower induction, while cooler temperatures around 14°C can reduce fruit set. The use of chemicals and growth regulators has been found effective in improving both flowering and fruit set, helping to mitigate these issues.
Following activities influence flower and fruit set in mango:
- Spraying ethephon can enhance flowering during the off year in biennial bearing trees.
- Sprays of KNO₃ or NH₄NO₃ increase flowering in tropical regions but are less effective in subtropical areas. Application rates of 10 g/L to 40 g/L KNO₃ have been shown to induce flowering.
- Paclobutrazol, a gibberellin inhibitor, stimulates early and more efficient flowering under marginally inductive temperatures when applied either as a soil treatment or spray.
- NAA (100 ppm spray) increases the number of hermaphrodite flowers and enhances fruit set.
- GA (gibberellic acid) delays flowering and fruit maturation, with the timing and concentration of application being critical for its effects.
Fruit
Mango fruit is classified as a drupe and exhibits significant variation in size and shape, ranging from flattened and rounded to elongated forms. The fruit weight can vary from a few grams to as much as 1 kilogram. Growth rates slow down during the endocarp hardening phase. The time from fruit set to maturity ranges between 10 to 28 weeks, depending on the cultivar and climatic conditions.
Propagation
Rootstock
The selection of rootstocks is a crucial aspect of mango cultivation, focusing on traits like dwarfing and tolerance to varying soil conditions. Common commercial cultivars are often used as rootstocks, and most mango plants are grafted onto polyembryonic rootstocks. Different countries utilize a variety of rootstocks tailored to local conditions and requirements.
Examples
- Mexico : ‘Carabao’ is a commonly used commercial rootstock.
- Africa : ‘Sabre’ is suited for sandy soils, while ‘4/9’ is used for heavy soils.
- Spain : ‘Gomera-3’ serves as a widely adopted rootstock.
- Israel : ’13-1′ is preferred for saline and alkaline soil conditions.
- Australia : ‘Kensington Pride,’ also a commercial cultivar, is used as a rootstock.
- India : ‘Olour,’ ‘Vellai Colamban,’ and ‘Saber’ are used to reduce tree vigor, while ‘Amrapali’ and ‘Mallika’ are extremely dwarfing rootstocks.
Propagation Methods
Veneer and Cleft grafting
Grafting is a widely practiced commercial technique in mango cultivation. It is typically performed on seedlings that are 6 to 8 months old. Bud sticks should be selected from the previous season’s growth and defoliated 7 to 10 days before being cut for grafting to ensure optimal success.
Stone grafting or epicotyl grafting
Stone grafting, a technique similar to cleft grafting, is simple, cost-effective, and quick. It is performed on seedlings that are 2 to 3 weeks old, typically at the copper-colored leaf stage. The scion used is a 4 to 6-month-old shoot. The process involves lifting the seedlings with their stones intact, grafting them, and then transplanting them back into the soil.
Inarching or approach grafting
This method involves a relatively time-consuming process suited for small-scale production. It begins by grafting a one-year-old seedling grown in a pot. The scion is not separated from the parent plant until the graft union is fully established, ensuring successful growth.
Training and Pruning in Mango
Pruning
Pruning in mango trees is typically minimal, as annual pruning is generally not practiced. However, these trees tend to grow densely, so occasional light thinning of branches may be necessary to facilitate better cultural practices. It’s important to remove any dead or diseased branches to maintain tree health. Additionally, controlling tree height by cutting back tall branches is essential for better management and productivity.
Training
The tree is trained to develop into a compact, well-branched structure. Initially, it is grown with a single trunk by removing all lateral shoots from the main stem until the plant reaches a height of 70–100 cm. To encourage branching, the terminal buds are pinched off, allowing three shoots to grow from each pinched point. This process is repeated for the lateral branches, resulting in nine secondary branches. The pinching continues in the same pattern until 27 tertiary branches are formed. This training process typically takes 2–3 years to complete.
Fruit maturity
Fruit maturity is crucial for optimal quality, especially for climacteric fruits. Immature fruits will not develop their full flavor if harvested too early. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that harvesting is done when the fruit has reached full maturity.
Maturity Indices
Signs of fruit maturity include the first drop of ripe fruit and the number of days elapsed since bloom. Key indicators also include a change in skin color, yellowing of the flesh near the endocarp, and a fuller appearance of the fruit’s cheek. Additionally, the endocarp should be hardened, and the total soluble solids (TSS) content should range between 12% and 15%.
Harvesting
Hand harvesting typically begins when grafted plants reach 3 to 4 years of age, initially yielding about 10–20 fruits. The trees reach their peak productivity between the 10th and 15th years, and with proper management, the yield continues to increase until the trees are around 40 years old.
Post Harvest Management
Storage
Mangoes have a relatively short shelf life of just 2 to 3 weeks, so it is essential to cool them as quickly as possible after harvest. The recommended storage temperature for most varieties is 13°C, although some types can tolerate temperatures as low as 10°C. Post-harvest handling involves a series of carefully coordinated steps to ensure the fruit remains fresh and maintains its quality.
These steps include preparation, where the fruit is sorted and prepared for further processing; grading to categorize the mangoes based on size, quality, and ripeness; and thorough washing to remove any dirt or residues. The mangoes are then dried and often waxed to enhance their appearance and reduce moisture loss.
After waxing, the fruits are packed into appropriate containers for protection during transit. Pre-cooling is performed to rapidly bring the mangoes to the desired storage temperature. Finally, the mangoes are palletized for easier handling and then transported under controlled conditions to reach markets or distribution centers while preserving their quality.
Packaging
Mangoes are usually packed in corrugated fiberboard boxes measuring 40 cm × 30 cm × 20 cm. Each box holds a single layer containing 8 to 20 mangoes, depending on their size. To maintain freshness and prevent spoilage, these boxes are designed with ventilation holes covering approximately 8% of the surface area, ensuring proper airflow during storage and transportation. This packaging method helps preserve the quality of the mangoes by regulating temperature and reducing moisture buildup.
Mango Disease
Anthracnose
- Caused by Colletotrichum gloesporioides
- Most devastating disease of mango
- Attacks on flowers, young fruits, leaves, and young twigs
- Black sunken irregular lesions on leaves and fruits
- Also, fruit rot results
- Disease is promoted by moisture
- Spread by rain
Critical period: Panicle appearance to fruit set.
Control
- Collection and destruction of diseased leaves and inflorescence
- Spray of Cu based fungicides
Major Insects
Mediterranean and Oriental fruit flies
(Ceratitis capitata and Dacus dorsalis)
- Spread widely throughout the world
- Major problem of mango production
- Polyphagous pest attacks many other fruit crops
Damages and life cycle
- Female fly lay eggs in the developing fruit as it starts to ripen
- Larvae produced and feed on the pulp and move through the fruit, causing premature ripening, rotting and fruit drop
- The larvae eventually leave the fruit and bury into the ground to become pupae
- This phase lasts until the adults emerge, and the cycle is repeated
Control measures
- Early harvest to shorten exposure time
- Hot water treatment or vapour heat treatment of fruit
- Eliminating other host plants
- Collecting and burying fallen fruits
- Use of traps
- Chemical control
Mango Hopper (Idioscopus sp.)
- Tiny insect
- Suck sap from flowers and young leaves
- Twig, leaf, panicle, flower and fruitlets deformed
- High economic loss.
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